Entrepreneurial Management In Marks And Spencer

Entrepreneurial Management In Marks And Spencer The issue of entrepreneurial management is utterly important for any organisation, as it is responsible for the realisation of strategic plans and business objectives by means of the human resources available for a company. This report discusses the perspectives and challenges of entrepreneurial management in Marks Spencer and particularly the issue of the relationship with human resources. The analysis of the problem relies on the models of organisational design context, organisational culture and entrepreneurial skills. The author explores and analyses the changes that the organisational has undergone in respects to MSs organisational structure and how their culture has been formulated. The necessary components of core managerial skills and competencies have been discussed in-line with MSs entrepreneurial activities. These factors have been evaluated and recommendations have been made. The author concludes that on the one hand, the recent reduction of the levels in the organisational structure of MS is beneficial for the company as the communication between the level, transparency and overall effectiveness increase. On the other hand, precise hierarchy and centralisation (mechanistic structure) make the company inflexible and difficult to adapt. Also tight environmental conditions and the current strategic objectives emphasise the need for organisational learning and professional development for both common employees and managers, which should be oriented to develop their existing entrepreneurial skills. The author states that MS should reward the most active and progressive managers creating motivation by all means. It is recommended that the organisational structure is flattened further, managerial control and communication should be improved to ensure better performances of MS and that the company should act in a more consultative manner. 2. Case Study: Marks Spencer The company Marks Spencer (MS) was founded by Michael Marks in 1884. Michael initially opened a stall at Leeds Kirkgate market that sold various items such as nails, screws, soap and wooden spoons for a penny each. In 1893 Michael decided to return back to his home routes in Manchester, and set up a shop downstairs from where he lived. He decided to seek a business partner; the business partner being Thomas Spencer. Today, MS is the largest UK retailer with 600 domestic outlets. Furthermore, the company is presented in over 40 other countries (294 foreign outlets). Marks Spencer concentrates predominantly of clothing and food retailing, which constitute 49% and 51% of its business respectively. The company offers stylish, high quality and great value clothing, as well as giving customers the opportunity to purchase food that is of outstanding quality that has been responsibly sourced from approximately 2,000 suppliers globally. The company has grown substantially throughout the years; the company direction and strategies have been manipulated to cater for the needs and desires of their existing and potential customer base and other stakeholders such as the employees, community, suppliers, shareholders and so forth. MS believes that their company values of Quality, Value, Service, Innovation and Trust are not newly established, and state that they are the principles that the business was founded (MS, 2010). More than 75,000 are employed by the firm all over the world. In 2009, revenue of MS was equal to  £9,062 million; net income constituted  £506 million. The companys profitability has been much higher prior to the recession. The company is listed on the London Stock Exchange (LSE) and is included in the FTSE 100 Index (MS, 2009). The share price reached its peak in 2007, and took a dramatic fall in 2008. MS has a variety of competitors ranging from the main supermarket groups, to specialists in fashion and homeware. The competitive environment has changed in recent years due to the rise of home shopping, and more consumers purchasing products from catalogues and the Internet. MS have to compete on price, what they have to offer, the rising expectations of the consumers and on the in-store experience. MSs management recognise the need to do business in an ethical way; to provide products and services to stimulate public interest and to abide by legislations/regulations such as consumers rights, environmental rules and other Industry regulations. Management have attracted 21 million people visiting the stores each week by their entrepreneurial implementations through their decision making processes by acting competitively and innovatively, also by differentiating themselves from their competitors in the retail industry by what they have to offer and by their strong ethical stance. The organisational design, organisational culture and the entrepreneurial skills that the management possess have contributed to MSs success in recent years. Management have been able to spot opportunities first were other competitors havent, or have not been fast enough to act; such as in 2002 MS announced that it was the first ever retailer to use only free-range eggs in all of their products, in 2005 MSs Cafe Revive were the first UK Coffee chain to offer Fair-Trade tea and coffee as standard, and in 2008 by becoming the first retailer to remove all artificial colour and flavourings from their entire food and soft drinks range (MS, 2008). MS empl oyees may therefore feel a sense of satisfaction for working for a well established, strongly ethical and successful company, thus potentially improving their co-operation and motivational levels. Stuart Rose, the Chairman/Chief Executive of MS expressed that the company has a key goal in everything they do: to build a sustainable business for the long term, generating shareholder value through consistent, profitable growth whilst making sure that customers can trust them to do the right thing. Rose states that customers of MS have told us that despite the impact of the recession our commitment to the environment and trading fairly is still important to them (MS, 2009). MS have planned ambitions to satisfy the general public by challenging themselves with the implementation of Plan A, aiming to become the worlds most sustainable major retailer by 2015 that could also prove to be a factor that encourages customer loyalty and help establishing a competitive advantage. Plan A was launched in January 2007 and is a five year eco-plan which has a positive contribution to the environment and society in every aspect of how MS do business so that they grow in a sustainable way. The plan addresses challenges across five areas: Climate change, waste, sustainable raw materials, fair partner and health (http://plana.marksandspencer.com). MS has a standard centralised organisational structure that is characteristic to the majority of the UK multiple retailers. The organisation structure is vertical (Whitehead, 1994). MS has moved to a new flatter structure recently, which implies the reduction of organisational layers in the structure (Varley, 2006); this therefore makes the organisation faster to perceive any changes and respond to them. Due to the organisation having a large complex structure, MS have to ensure that managerial control and communication throughout the hierarchy is efficient and effective to try ensuring high employee morale and motivation, thus a more efficient and effective workforce to meet MSs strategic objectives. This is a key problem area that MS need to focus on. The structure of the hierarchy is complex; therefore employees attitudes and values may only be conveyed to the employees line manager. This reflects the importance of communication in MS between the vertical levels of authority. The leadership style is autocratic; the business decisions are typically made and influenced by management only with a lack of consultation of the employees. Consultation could give employees recognition, motivation and a sense of belonging/need. The recession has had direct effect on MS in terms of profitability and their entrepreneurial thinking in decision making processes, due to the serious nature and potential negative associations that can follow from such an economic downturn. In October 2008 Stuart Rose stated that Consumer confidence remained fragile and the retail environment was unpredictable (http://business.timesonline.co.uk); this enforcing company management to act in an entrepreneurial way, by being alert and acting rapidly in the best interests of the organisation and its stakeholders. MSs management realise that there is an importance of having the ability to spot any opportunities available; in the scope to improve customer loyalty and confidence in the brand to attempt to overcome the negative side effects of the recession and assisting the creation of stability/prosperity for the company. According to Morgan (2001) the corporation provides the training of technical skills and business competencies of their employees. Afterwards, the effectiveness analysis of the learning is conducted within six months (Schutt, 2006). The learning process is necessary for the management to develop entrepreneurial skills to lead the workforce in an effective, appropriate and motivational manner. In January 2009 management announced that they were to cut costs by reducing their workforce by 1000 staff members across the retail stores, head office and their support functions (www.telegraph.co.uk). This reflects the need for strict management of the workforce and certain constraints to be implemented in such a dynamic environment to meet short/long term company objectives. The company comprehend the requirement to ensure that there is a focused balance between each of the stakeholders needs and desires; sacrifices such as these cost cutting measures have been implemented in attempts to outweigh financial uncertainty. According to Stiegert and Kim (2009) the rewards and bonuses for the employees in MS have been reduced considerably with the coming of the global financial crisis; which could be detrimental for the workforces future efficiency, motivation and morale; thus potentially affecting customer satisfaction levels. MS strive to satisfy stakeholders through the utilisation of the management team and their employees. They emphasise the need for effective managerial control in-line with company objectives; for the employees to know the entailment of their job specifications to provide efficiency that may contribute to a competitive advantage being established for MS. The outcome of this process will decide the companys future competitive stance in their market. 3. Context of Organisational Design According to Ferrell (1979) and Gibson et al. (2003), the notion of organisational design is directly associated with the creation of formal relationship, roles and processes within an organisation. The researcher has chosen the model that describes the context of organisational design, since it is necessary to analyse the framework and conditions of the management process and managers roles within Marks Spencer from the very beginning. According to Stanford (2005), the model of the context of organisational design is five-fold, where all the components are mutually influenced. The context of organisational design in Marks Spencer can be presented as follows: Structure: MS has a standard centralised organisational structure that is characteristic to the majority of the UK multiple retailers. Marks Spencer does not possess any manufacturing facilities in Great Britain. This means that the success of this retail business is determined by greater centralisation. The company has a vertical structure (Whitehead, 1994). MS has moved to a new flatter structure recently, which implies the reduction of organisational layers in the structure (Varley, 2006). The composition of the second-layer management team is the following: human resources, international business, retail, IT and logistics, food, store marketing and design, merchandise, finance and operations, marketing (MS, 2009). It can be argued that such hierarchy and the reduced number or levels in the organisational structure to be an advantage (mechanistic structure). The communication between the layers is better arranged, tasks and responsibilities are clearly defined, which is the key to stability. However, it may be argued that the whole organisation is less flexible and adaptive as in the case of organic structure. This deals predominantly with the initiative of lower rank managers. Size: According to the size, Marks Spencer can be classified as a large business, since the company employs more than 75,000 people all over the world (MS, 2010). Huge size implies extensive hierarchy from the CEO to a common worker (Coe, 2004). Despite the fact that organisational structure has been flattened recently, it is complicated anyway. Huge size obliges MS to state and restate precise responsibilities on a regular basis. The fulfilment of duties raises the problem of advanced managerial control. Environment: The environment in which Marks Spencer operates can be characterised as complex. The company is to respect consumer rights, operate according to the regulations in the industry and comply with environmental rules such as waste control (Bevan, 2001). Furthermore, MS is responsible to provide timely salaries and wages to its employees (Jones and Simmons, 1990). Moreover, the company is to adjust to recent social changes, which imply that the UK residents tend to spend more time online than outdoors. It is valid to argue that such a complex environment makes the management process within MS more difficult. Better entrepreneurial skills are required from the top management. And more sophisticated strategies should be used. It can be argued that in such conditions, there is a pressing need for greater integration of the departments of Marks Spencer. Technology: The technologies implemented in Marks Spencer would be rather characterised as routine technologies. Being of a clothes and food retailer, the company faces automatic and frequently repeated processes and tasks. Very few employees are required to demonstrate a creative approach to their responsibilities (non-routine technologies) (Dobson et al., 2004). It may be argued that routine technologies in MS can be explained by the considerable hierarchal organisational structure. In such a case the presence of bureaucracy is inevitable. It is valid to argue that the existing bureaucratic organisational structure should be improved by a more creative management process. This requires better entrepreneurial skills from the managers themselves. But this will enable to upgrade the inter-level communication quality. Strategy: Corporate strategy is quite a broad notion, but it can be stated that the key objectives of MS is to accentuate its own brand, to improve the clothing segment in order to reach the balance between food and clothing retail. Furthermore, the company seeks to improve the line of Home Beauty in its retail stores, to accelerate the programme of store renewal, improve the supply chain and start to use the space in outlets more effectively (MS, 2009; MS, 2010). In May 2008 a press release stated that international sales and profits were up by 16.8% and 33% (http://news.bbc.co.uk); it could be suggested that MS are hoping to overcome some weaknesses of the UKs current economic climate with geographical diversification by increasing stores internationally. As it is seen, these business strategic issues require optimisation and rationalisation of the existing directions. This means that MS is to provide professional training and organisational learning for its employees. According to Morgan (2001) the corporation provides the training of technical skills and business competencies of their employees. Afterwards, the effectiveness analysis of the learning is conducted within six months (Schutt, 2006). It may be argued by the author that the discussed strategic orientation of MS requires more specialised training of the employees. Furthermore, the training should not be academic by nature, but it must be integrated into the practical fulfillment of responsibilities. It is supposed that learning groups should be organised within departments and the team work is to be emphasised in such learning. The model of organisational design context can be criticised for the fact that it does not take into account the dimension of industry. Retail industry, in which Marks Spencer is engaged, is attributed to numerous specific features that do matter in the aspects of organisational learning, entrepreneurial skills and competences. First of all, this industry is customer-oriented (Stanford, 2005). Second, the whole structure should be aimed to provide a stable and high-quality service. From this standpoint, culture of communication, fast reaction between the organisational layers and strong lea dership are sufficient. 4. Organisational Culture The model of organisational culture has been chosen for discussion because it embraces a wide range of management categories associated with the company. It is possible to discuss leadership styles, controls and rewards in organisational processes. Managerial ethics and inter-industry specifics are also included into the model (Pinches, 1999). As it was mentioned, the previous model lacked these industry-related issues. However, the framework was formulated on the foundation of very fundamental assumptions about how organisations work and how they are managed (Cameron and Quinn, 2006); these assumptions may not be true of all organisations in practice; the model also represents that each of the four inputs are of equal importance in prescribing culture, this may not always be the case. Organisational processes: Discussing the leadership styles in Marks Spencer it is quite difficult to generalise since different managers can choose different leadership depending on personal preferences, educational background and experience. Nevertheless, the top managers of the company have been numerously characterised in the past as having an autocratic leadership style (Williams, 1992). This means that with such state of affairs the authority of managers is high, but the autonomy of departments, groups and individuals in the decision-making process is low (Messick and Kramer, 2005; Mullins, 2007). This is partially explained by the centralised vertical structure with considerable number of layers. It is difficult to judge whether this style is the best one for MS, but it is valid to assume that it contributes to bureaucracy, lower motivation and absence of the necessity of personal development of employees. Hence, the management can be at least recommended to improve the autonomy of the creative departm ents. The employees engaged in non-routine technologies should be managed consultatively. According to Stiegert and Kim (2009) the rewards and bonuses for the employees in MS have been reduced considerably with the coming of the global financial crisis. A press release in May 2008 stated that store teams are set to share  £12.8 million; the previous year MS paid a record of  £91 million in bonuses to its 75,000 staff (http://investmentmarkets.co.uk). This could generate negative effect on the motivation and productivity of the personnel. It can be argued that the corporation should find the possibility to reward the most active and progressive managers and employees. However, Stuart Rose believes MS are expecting market conditions to remain difficult for the foreseeable future and are managing the business accordingly. Tight stock control and management of costs are priority. (http://corporate.marksandspencer.com) The company announced cuts of 1000 jobs in January 2009; this could create uncertainty in the workforce that may lead to a lack of motivation, morale and in crease absenteeism levels due to stress and anxiety. Cognitive processes: One of the strongest features of MS is that the company supports professional ethics. This characteristic refers to both the employees and customers of the company. Managerial decisions and actions cannot contradict to the existing regulations (MS, 2010). Nevertheless, the process of strategic thinking is vertical as in the case of organisational structure. It is valid to argue that lower rank managers should be involved into the process of strategic thinking. Behaviours: Group member behaviour in Marks Spencer can be described as traditional teamwork. This kind of member and manager behaviour is characteristic to centralised vertical organisational structures (Morgan, 2001). Such form of behaviour implies lower control by group members and greater control by group facilitators. Again, the company can be criticised for increased control over employees and strict frameworks in which the employees have to perform their functions. Values: The values of Marks Spencer are the following: quality, service, innovation, trust and commitment towards employees and valued people (MS, 2010). The implementation of Plan A strives to meet the environmental concerns of the company, employees and customers, encouraging people to live a greener lifestyle (MS, 2010). Human resources are among the highest values of the company. However, such direction is to be confirmed by the practical actions of the corporation. 5. Entrepreneurial Skills Another model that can be applied to characterise Marks Spencer is the entrepreneurial skills model. It has been chosen for the discussion because it vividly illustrates the necessary components of core managerial skills and competencies developing that take place within the company to contribute towards forming the organisations culture and design. However though, research to determine whether identifiable relationships exist between the performance of the firm, the learning mode of the organisation and organisational competence does not provide clear statistically significant relationships and further work is clearly needed (Chaston et al, 1999). Entrepreneurial skills- The necessary components of core managerial skills and competencies: Research and practice connected to competence is focused by the ambition to achieve superior performance, and for economic gain or business success (Spencer and Spencer, 1993). As it has been already mentioned, the personnel of Marks Spencer participate in regular organisational learning aimed to develop the core skills and competencies (Johansson, 2004). However, the researcher argues that such learning is necessary in the first place for the management of the company to develop entrepreneurial skills; Deakins and Freel (2003) proclaim that there is need for sophisticated knowledge and competencies to operate larger production runs and manage a workforce. It may be stated that the connection to the industry should be emphasised at every stage. The business should focus on the management to build a reliable customer-oriented service. An Industry opportunity has been spotted by management in the implementation of Plan A, in which MS feel has motivated employees and involved them in taking part in contributing to the good cause that they have an interest in in the community where they and the customers live. Costs have also been reduced in result of Plan A, with a  £50 million surplus in 2009/2010 (http://plana.marksandspencer.com). It could be argued that the management team implementing these changes relate to the definition of an entrepreneur as according to Schumpeter and Kirzner. Shumpeter (1934) believed the entrepreneur is a special person who brings about change, whilst Kirzner (1979) believed the entrepreneur is anyone who is alert to the profitable opportunities for exchange; who has additional knowledge which enables the recognition and exploitation of an opportunity (Deakins and Freel, 2003). The skill to recognise and exploit the positive financial, environmental and employee motivational implications of Plan A appears to be welcomed by the general public (through the knowledge gathered from customers (MS 2009) which could establish a competitive advantage). Also by the company and its employees due to the improvement of environmental issues that may affect all of the stakeholders; and by the savings that have been made that can be utilised in other means to the companys strategic advantage. Personal motivation is necessary for managers. If they possess this, it would be a transmitter to further organisational levels. According to Lussier (2009) managers have come to realise that a motivated workforce can contribute powerfully to bottom-line profits and that the poor performance of employees can be caused inadvertently by managers themselves potentially due to their lack of motivation. In this light, the bonuses and rewards for the managers are extremely important. David Michels (Deputy Chairman of MS) expressed that he believes good governance encourages entrepreneurship and innovation within a framework of accountability (http://corporate.marksandspencer.com). The general management skills and human relationship skills appear to be the fundamental competencies for managers. 6. Conclusion and Recommendation It may be concluded that on the one hand, the reduction of the levels in the organisational structure of Marks Spencer is beneficial for the company as the communication between the level, transparency and overall effectiveness increase. On the other hand, precise hierarchy and centralisation (mechanistic structure) make the company inflexible and difficult to adapt. MS can be recommended to flatten its structure even more because the number of departments and layers has remained high in spite of the restructuring that was attempted (MS, 2010). Furthermore, communication, quality control and managerial control over the fulfilment of employees responsibilities should be improved to ensure better performance in the company. Tight environmental conditions and the current strategic objectives emphasise the need for organisational learning and professional development for both common employees and managers. In particular, the professional training of common employees should be carried out in real teams (departments) and should be practical. The professional development of managers in MS should be oriented to develop their entrepreneurial skills. Marks Spencer can be recommended to concentrate on industry specifics, general management and human relationship. Furthermore, the company is to reward the most active and progressive managers creating motivation by all means. MS can be recommended to reconsider leadership styles with respect to creative workers engaged in non-routing technologies (from autocratic to consultative). In addition, lower rank managers are to be involved into the decision-making process of MS that may encourage them to act in a more enthusiastic intrapreneurial way.

Conflicting Perspective in The Great Gatsby Essay -- The Great Gatsby

The 1920s prove to be an era that brought around some of the greatest influences and some of the greatest controversies. In the 1920s, there began to be a schism in the beliefs of prohibition, personal freedoms, and class separation. Traditionalist believed that people were running ramped drink and being promiscuous. Modernists were out to seek personal freedoms, such drinking, sexual experimental, women coming out of their stereotypical roles of being reserved and prude. Classes divided because some people had inherited wealth and other had work hard to earn their money. In The Great Gatsby, a novel by F. Scott Fitzgerald, these controversies that divided the generations of the 1920s included prohibition, and the right to personal freedoms and compares and contrast new money versus old money and modernism versus traditionalism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In The Great Gatsby, there is social dividing line that separates the aristocracy and those who are â€Å"would be† aristocracy. That diving is visible as well as invisible. It is visible in the form of â€Å"West-Egg† and â€Å"East-Egg†, which are areas of Manhattan that are divided between the people with New Money, West-Egg, and the people have had money for generations, East-Egg. People of the east look down on the people of the west as gaudy in every aspect, their homes are over elaborate, as describe by the narrator Nick Carraway. â€Å"My own house was an eye – sore, but it was a small eye-sore and it had been overlooked† (9-10 Fitzgerald). But the homes of east were not described in such as way they were â€Å"the white palaces of fashionable East – Egg† (10 Fitzgerald). Thus dividing in such a way that was as visible as the sound that ran between them. A more invisible dividing line was the snobbish way that Tom Buchanan treated everyone. He dismissed his own wife at times, to go and be with his mistress, whom he treated like property. Tom, one day on the way into New York, forces Nick off the train into the Valley of the Ashes, to go and retrieve his mistress. Demandingly Tom says to Myrtle â€Å"I want to see you†¦ Get on the next train† (30 Fitzgerald). And that was that no contestation, Nick stood there almost dumbfounded, and the arrogance of Tom was very apparent. This was a display that drew an invisible in between the people of East In 1920 the 18th amendment came into effect, outlawing and banding the sale, ma... ...en and women about sexual dangers of sexual activity and the value of â€Å"social purity†(Henretta 651). The thought was that the more people knew about the risks of their personal freedoms that they might choose to take a more traditionalist approach to the choices. But the modernist of their era continued their promiscuity and even created some birth controls, which was aided by Margaret Sanger. People continued to do what they please and then prohibition was repealed by the 21st amendment. The 1920s brought to society the things people may have felt but could not due to social constraints. Prohibition allowed people to go out and find the alcohol, since it could not be found elsewhere. Personal freedoms such as drink and sexual experimentation were expressed in full force of the modernists. There was a very aristocratic approach to the way people viewed and treated other people, there was much class segregation. That segregation was due to new money versus old money and traditionalism versus modernism. The twenties was a â€Å"roaring† era full of new ideas, gadgets, gismos, consumer items, drinking, sex, and fast-paced times. An era that has shaped the way the United States is today.

An Early Start to Foreign Language Learning Essay -- Language

Today there are between six and seven thousand languages being spoken around the world. Millions of children all over the world are learning a second or even third language beginning before they reach high school. For instance, China has more than two hundred million students studying English in elementary school, while the United States has a mere twenty-four thousand learning Chinese (Glod 1). The lack of bilingualism has become an ever-increasing problem in the United States’ ability to compete globally with other economically powerful countries. Satellite programming, increased international travel, and the use of the Internet in different parts of the world have created a global community. No single country can produce all the goods and services that are needed to exist autonomously. Because of this, children have the opportunity to become powerful political and business leaders of the future. Therefore, the need for a second language has become progressively more impera tive. Through many studies and reports, experts have determined that the best time to learn a foreign language is during elementary school. However, according to the U.S Department of Education, in the United States only 24% of public elementary schools report teaching a foreign language during this time. This being said, a problem exists. Only 44% of high school students are currently enrolled in foreign language classes. While Spanish comprises 69% and French makes up additional 18% of their enrollment (Department of Education). Less than 1% combined of these students study languages such as Arabic, Chinese, Farsi, Japanese, Korean, and Russian. During George W. Bush’s presidency, Bush addressed the issue and determined that the United States needs more ... ...hildren have the opportunity to broaden their horizons personally and professionally. Works Cited Cognitive Benefits of Learning Language. American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language, Fall 2007. Web. 1 June 2012. Glod, Maria. â€Å"Schools Try Elementary Approach To Teaching Foreign Languages.† Washington Post 8 Aug. 2006. Print. Marcos, Kathleen. Why, How, and When Should My Child Learn a Second Language? Kids Source, 26 July 2000. Web. 2 June 2012. Raab, Nina. â€Å"The Cognitive Benefits of Learning a Second Language.† Fusion Huntington Beach. N.p., 27 Nov. 2011. Web. 1 June 2012. Snuggs, Carla, ed. Foreign Language in Preschool: The Benefits of Teaching Multiple Languages in Daycare or Preschool. Suite 101, 28 Jan. 2008. Web. 30 May 2012. Why We Need to Learn a Foreign Language Young! Cracking the Learning Code, n.d. Web. 30 May 2012.

Medicine in the Fight against HIV/AIDS and Cancer :: Medical Treatment Chinese Papers

Medicine in the Fight against HIV/AIDS and Cancer Conventional (allopathic) medicine has been the mainstream Western approach to medicine ever since the early twentieth century. Previous to the widespread popularization of the allopathic tradition, other more holistic traditions of medicine were accepted and practiced without bias. The founding of the American Medical Association (AMA) brought with it a swift turnabout for other traditions and placed the monopoly of the industry solely in the hands of allopathic physicians. However many of the procedures and techniques for dealing with illness in conventional medicine are invasive and involve the introduction of severe and even toxic agents and many people are now expressing a desire to return to more natural means of fighting disease. The use of alternative medicine is becoming increasingly popular in the Western world, although patients are hesitant to inform their allopathic physicians of this use. The prevalence of HIV/AIDS and Cancer cases is growing in leaps daily and these diseases even represent the leading causes of mortality in some countries. Conventional medicine is undoubtedly not always able to successfully treat many of these cases but it has been suggested that a combination of allopathic and alternative therapy would increase success rates by providing the optimal treatment of illness, as in the treatment of HIV/AIDS and Cancer. Western culture should endeavor to explore alternative practices instead of brushing aside what it does not understand. There are many different forms of alternative medicine, some of which are centuries old. The term 'alternative medicine' covers the broad category of unconventional forms of medicine, many of which are not accepted by the allopathic tradition due to their inability to be evaluated under the scientific method and their consequent lack of empiricality, both of which have strong bases in the Western tradition. The systems that fall under alternative medicine are Chinese Medicine, Ayurveda, Naturopathic Medicine, Homeopathy, Osteopathic Medicine, Chiropractic, Massage Therapy and Bodywork, and Mind/Body Medicine. Five of these treatments will be discussed in their general approaches to illness as a demonstration of alternative models of medicine. Chinese Medicine is an ancient form of alternative medicine, dating back over 3000 years. The key principle of this tradition is the belief in an unseen entity called chi, which symbolizes the vital life force energy inherent in all things. Chi flows through the human body in pathways known as meridians, which enable the passage of this energizing force through all the organs of the body.

Aging and Cognitive Status

The following paragraph will identify the physical manifestations of aging, thus illustrating the most commonly viewed perception about elderly – forgetfulness. What is it all about and why and how does it affect human lives. This essay will answer the question as to whether forgetfulness is a pathologic or biologic characteristic of aging.The premise on which this paper operates on is the inference and personal opinion of the author relative to the effects and conditions of forgetfulness, its impact to both young and old alike.Aging is tantamount to the degeneration of all bodily functions, until such time when the function exhausts itself and degenerate. This is because the life span of the human cell only extends up to such time until it no longer regenerates.As we age, the usual optimal level of bodily functions that we have gotten used to begins to slow down. This also holds true with the cognitive and motor functions. In the cognitive aspect, aging brings along the tende ncy of memory loss and focus. Older people sometimes finds it hard to remember events that took place in the past, even more so with events which took place just recently.Cognition won’t be as efficient and sharp as it used to be. There is the deterioration of vision and eyesight that sometimes causes a great deal of confusion among elderly and sometime the same culprit as that of accidents and fall.As for motor functioning, there is the slowing down of bodily movements, as in the case of slow movement. One of the possible reasons can be attributed to the poor vision, where in they move slowly because they can not see very clearly therefore requiring them to make sure every step they make.Certain cells in the brain die causing it to alter cognition in a way also affecting other functions like the satiety, taste buds memory and etc.This is true to almost every human being, although the rate of deterioration may differ on a case to case basis, depending on how the body has been taken cared for while in their youth (AAGP. 2004). Almost every elderly, experiences a certain percentage of memory loss, deterioration of vision and taste buds, as well as that of motor functions at certain point in time.Although, the hearing, memory, taste and vision loss is common among elderly, this can also happen in earlier stages of life, especially so with accidents causing injury or trauma to the central nervous system. Forgetfulness also happens to young people, which is especially true when there are a lot of things going on in a person’s life.Sometimes, there are just too many things to take care of, responsibilities at home, in school, the family and even to self. Sometimes it is the kind of lifestyle that causes this.Memory lapse can be a bothersome thing, however temporary they may be; the idea of forgetting things can be so irritating especially if you lost it at the time it is most needed.The best thing to do if this happens to younger people like me is to s top whatever it is that I am doing and concentrate, de-stress and relax, so that the thought comes back when the body is at the state of ease and comfort (Rauch. 2005).Reference PageAAGP [American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry]. (2004). Geriatrics and Mental Health factsheet. Retrieved online on 14 Feb 2007 from http://aagponline.org/prof/facts_mh.aspRauch, Kate. (2005). Why are many elderly people forgetful? It may be the blues. A WebMDarticle published in MedicineNet webpage last Jan 30, 2005. Retrieved 14 Feb 2007 from: http://www.webmd.com/content/article/13/1674_50449

History of China

(1) During the start, when the first settlers came to China, the Chinese have been an extraordinary civilization, from its philosophies to technologies. It has been ruled by Emperors who have tried to unite China. Those who were successful were usually blessed with a Dynasty which lasted for a while. The Chinese have prospered and suffered. The ancient history of China reflects the beauty of Chinese ancient culture and morality. With more than 5000 years of history, China has a wonderful culture and splendid civilization. History of China) China’s history is told in traditional historical records that take us back to the three sovereigns and five emperors about 5,000 years ago, enhanced by archaeological records dating to the 16th century BC. China is known as one of the world’s oldest continuous civilizations. From the oldest resident in China and the oldest dynasty, Xia dynasty, there have been millions of well-known people who made great contributions to the harmony, unity and growth of Chinese civilization.They contain emperors such as, Hanwudi (Emperor of Han dynasty) and Li Shimin (Emperor of Tang Dynasty), famous scholars such as Confucius (Great Educator/Guru in Spring and Autumn period), and great scientists like Zhu Chongzhi and Zhangheng. It is their great contributions and efforts that made China appealing and pleasant today. (History of China) Chine has a continuous civilization and the world’s oldest people, consisting of states and cultures dating back more than six millennia.China has the world’s longest continuously used written language system, and is the source of many major inventions, such as what the British scholar and biochemist Joseph Needham called the ‘’four great inventions of Ancient China’’, paper, the compass, gunpowder and printing. China’s cultural area of interest, historically, has spread across East Asia as a whole, with Chinese religion, customers and writing syst ems being taken to great extent by neighbours such as Japan, Korean and Vietnam. China Facts and History) China, with a population of more than one billion people, is a country full of marketing potential. Having so many potential consumers, it usually gives out a positive attitude on how any product could reach its target audience. Nonetheless with a country so rich in history and culture, there are many factors to be taken in account by marketers. Some of the most important and influential elements would be the monetary policy, currency system, market agreements and environmental factors of the country. Overview of China's History) China’s business structure has been fluctuating from time to time. During 1976 to 1985 a ten year plan stressed improvement in economic management and a bigger role for private and collectively owned (as opposed to state-owned) enterprises. They still continued to attract western technology and investment and did a program of incentives to increa se agricultural production. New policies were introduced in 1984 which called for further delegation of economic planning and for growing reliance on market forces to figure out the prices of consumer goods.Since the early 1990s the government of China continued to ease controls on the economy. While taking a look at China’s history from a business structure, it is essential to check their economics background and other factors such as National Output, Labour, Communications, Commerce, Government and more. During the 1990’s China’s business structure started improving. The annual gross domestic product (GDP) of china was about $544. 6 billion.Agricultural outputs (which also includes some small-scale industries in rural areas,forestry and fishing) started increasing and accounted for about 24 percent of domestic income and industrial output (which includes manufacturing,mining, electricity generation, building and construction) accounted for 42 percent. Chinaâ⠂¬â„¢s labour force is one of the important facts in their business structure, their labour force in 1996 was estimated at nearly 584 million people. China has issues with unemployment and underemployment because of fast amount of population growth rate.About one-quarter of the populations was 15years of age or younger during the 1990s, therefore it was assured that a huge amount of young people will enter the labour force each year. (Overview of China's History) About 60 percent of their labour force consists of agricultural workers. The circulation of commodities in China made a huge change in 1979, state-owned enterprises have been unbound to obtain few of their supplies and organize a part of their product on the market; extensive use of advertisement as a source of information has also been clear.Over the years the reorganization of commerce in urban centers, has brought about a rapid growth of collectively and individually owned businesses, such as restaurants, teahouses, inns , hairdressing establishments, photography studios, tailor shops, and all types of repair and maintenance services. (Overview of China's Marketing History) It is very complex to identify exactly when theTextile industry started. Archaeological studies imply that the first textile, different from fur or skins sewn together was felt (non-woven) cloth created by compressing and condensing woollen fibers.It is believed that the locations where textile was first used are; Egypt, India, Turkey and China. Ever since ancient years, China was a strong player in the textile market. Textile production in China from the earliest evidence were cocoon of bombyx mori, the domesticated silkworm, which happened to be found in Xia, Shanxi, which was dated around 5000 and 3000 BC. Around just about 4000 BC the first textile fragments were found in Yuyao, Zhejiang. Scraps of silk were found in Huzhou Zheijiang, which happened to be back to 27000 BC. China's Textile and Clothing Industry) Since 1949 tex tile and clothing has been one of China's traditional industries and has remained as one of the important industries in modern China. This industry has experienced serious reforms and reached high growth for a long period of time. China has turned into the world's largest exporter and producer of many products in this industry. Chinese firms concentrate on the low-end product markets. They are still very poor in management and marketing skills.Technologies in this industry are not yet advanced and profit margins are pretty low. (China's role in the Global Textile Industry) Around 1979 China completely started its foreign trade, In 1979 China solved certain trade restrictions, paving the way for increases in the relatively small foreign investment and trade activity and by the early 1990s yearly exports totalled about $92 billion and imports about $104 billion. (Facts and History of China) China’s success has been primarily due to manufacturing as a low-cost producer.This is q ualified because of a combination of cheap labour, good infrastructure, relatively high productivity, favourable government policy and possibly undervalued exchange rate. (History of China) 5000 years have passed and the Chinese nation and society are welcoming much development in the 21st century. With the collective energy of 1. 3 billion people, China will enter a new phase in the 21st century and create a miracle for it people and the world. (History of China) .

Lecture Notes for Bio 106

Reproductive roles Male’s job is to get the sperm to the egg The sperm are specialized to deliver the male’s genes to the egg Female’s job is to produce a gamete (egg) containing the female’s genes Egg is specialized to nourish the embryo Egg is large and contains nutrients Egg must be moved along Female must also nourish and protect the embryo and fetus This is the job of the uterus Male reproductive strategy: Produce millions of gametes and hope that one makes it to the egg Female reproductive strategy: Invest heavily in one gamete and nourish and protect it Egg Cell (Ovum; 1 copy each chromosome) Sperm Cell (1 copy of each chromosome) MEIOSIS (a type of cell division that begins with a cell with 2 copies of each chromosome and ends with 4 cells with 1 copy of each chromosome) FERTLIZATION (Fusion of Egg and Sperm nuclei; creates a cell with 2 copies of each chromosome) Zygote (cell formed by fusion of egg and sperm; has 2 copies of each chromosome; will develop into new individual) Ovary (in female) Testis (in male) 1 Gonads: a. Testes in male b. Ovaries in females 1. roduce gametes Male = sperm Female = ovum or egg join zygote; new individual 2. produce sex hormones testosterone estrogen + progesterone Male Reproductive System Testes located in scrotum why? sperm don't survive well at body temperature is 3-4o F cooler temp kept constant by reflex how? – pass through the inguinal canal before birth hole usually closed over with connective tissue possible problems 1. cryptorchidism failure of the testes to descend if not corrected, results in sterility corrected by surgery or by administering hormones 2. inguinal hernia inguinal canal does not completely close intestine may push into opening correct with surgery more common in men but may occur in women Inside Testes 1. eminiferous tubules about 1000 site where sperm are produced by a process called spermatogenesis produce 100 million+ sperm each day from puberty until death spermatogenesis A. takes place in an orderly progression from the outside edge of seminiferous tubule to inside (lumen) B. involves changes in genetic information and changes in the shape and functioning of cell sperm carry father’s genetic contribution to next offspring body cells have 2 copies of each chromosome (1 from Mom & 1 from Dad) gametes (egg or sperm) can have only 1 copy of each chromosome meiosis = the type of cell division that produces gametes 1 cell with 2 copies of each chromosome Meiosis spermatogenesis 4 cells with 1 copy of each chromosome Sperm Structure 2 designed to deliver male’s genetic contribution to next generation 1.Head – contains male’s genetic contribution to next generation; almost all nucleus 2. Acrosome – a sac containing enzymes to will allow the sperm to digest the outer layers around egg so sperm nucleus can reach egg nucleus 3. Mitochondria – energy to fuel the trip to egg 4. Tail (or flagellum) has contractile fibers for motility; allows the sperm to swim to egg 2. interstitial cells – produce male sex hormone – testosterone Still in testis – between seminiferous tubules Beginning at puberty these cells secrete testosterone They are stimulated to secrete testosterone by LH, a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland LH (from anterior pituitary) stimulates the release of testosteroneHORMONES chemical messengers produced by certain glands and released into the blood hormone reaches all cells only cells with a receptor for that hormone can respond a cell responds by doing what that cell does it might divide it might produce a chemical it might increase rate of certain chemical reactions so hormones have different effects on different cells cells without receptors for that hormone cannot respond 3 Cell 1 (with receptor) Effect 1 Cell 2 (with receptor) Effect 2 Hormone Into blood supply throughout body Cell 3 (with receptor) Effect 3 Cell 4 (no rec eptor) No Effect Testosterone causes: development of male reproductive apparatus sperm maturation secondary sex characteristics sex drive (in part) Possible problems with testes Testicular cancer: most common in males 25-30 yrs. more common if testes did not descend after 6 yrs. may be hereditary usually does not cause pain Practice self exam! Feel for small lump Best done after a hot shower Sperm next enter a system of tubes to store and transport sperm 1. pididymis: tube about 20 feet long stores sperm sperm mature here, sperm change size and shape, metabolism changes, sperm become capable of moving but don't yet. sperm moved along by peristalsis (a wave of muscle contraction) 2. vas deferens: sperm duct conducts sperm from epididymis to urethra 3. urethra: conducts sperm to outside of body, also conducts urine but never at same time Accessory Glands: 1. Bulbourethral glands mucous secretion just before ejaculation lubricant? Buffers to adjust pH of urethra 2. Prostate gland secre tes fluid, milky color alkaline activates sperm counteracts acidity of female reproductive tract Possible problems with prostate 1. enlarges in older men difficulty urinating & decreased bladder volume 2. rostate cancer grows slowly can spread detected by: rectal exam and blood test for PSA (prostate specific antigen) 4 3. Seminal vesicles make up most of the volume of semen secretion probably nourishes sperm (contains fructose, vitamin C, amino acids, prostaglandins) Result = semen Semen: secretions of accessory glands and sperm about 1 tsp. per ejaculation, about 20 % sperm Functions: transport sperm lubricate passageways nourish sperm decrease acidity of female reproductive tract Penis: Functions: transfer sperm to female conducts sperm outside body tip is enlarged = glans penis (rich in sensory endings) Mechanism of erection 3 columns of spongy tissue arteries dilate ? increase blood delivery veins close down blood accumulatesErectile Dysfunction = Impotence inability to achieve or maintain an erection common problem many possible causes – both physical and emotional drugs now available to help a man have an erection when he is sexually stimulated (e. g. Viagra, Cialis, Levitra) These inhibit the breakdown of the neurotransmitter that causes the arteries in penis to dilate arteries are dilated longer increases and prolongs blood entering the penis ? erection Female Reproductive System gonads = 2 ovaries 1. produce eggs or ova (singular = ovum) egg is specialized to provide nourishment for early embryo large cell full of nutrients 2. produce female hormones: estrogen progesterone Female also nourishes and protects the developing embryo and fetus = job of the uterus 5 Ovarian Cycle = series of events in the ovary that leads to production of egg, estrogen & progesterone 1. ollicle maturation primary follicle = an immature egg surrounded by a layer of follicle cells as follicle matures the immature egg gets larger follicle cells divide and form many lay ers around egg follicle cells secrete estrogen mature follicle egg completes first meiotic division layers of follicle cells splits forming a central cavity filled with fluid containing estrogen egg pushed to side with layer of follicle cells 2. ovulation = release of immature egg from ovary egg released with layer of follicle cells around it rest of follicle cells stay in ovary 3. corpus luteum forms from follicle cells remaining in ovary corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesteroneOVARY primary follicle (immature egg surrounded by follicle cells) mature follicle (many layers of follicle cells, fluid filled cavity, egg surrounded by follicle cells) after ovulation follicle cells remaining in ovary become corpus luteum estrogen progesterone egg 1. estrogen maturation of egg development and maintenance of reproductive structures cell division: thickens lining of uterus also occurs in breast tissue secondary sex characteristics pubic hair armpit hair broader pelvis breast developm ent 2. progesterone prepares uterus for egg implantation maintains pregnancy 6 Oogenesis = the process by which an egg (ovum) is formed Meiosis: starts with a cell that has 2 copies of every chromosome ends with up to 4 cells with 1 copy of every chromosome 1 egg (ovum) and 3 non functional polar bodies IN FEMALES MEIOSIS IS NOT A CONTINUOUS PROCESS Preparations begin efore birth in all potential eggs Then development stops Beginning at puberty, 1 egg continues to the next stage of development The egg is ovulated (released from the ovary) Meiosis is completed ONLY if the egg is fertilized) Number of ova At puberty: potential for about 400,000 eggs Usually 1 each month develops in each monthly cycle (if 2 form and both are fertilized get fraternal twins) total egg production ~ 450 eggs in lifetime menopause – rest of potential eggs have degenerated Oviducts (Fallopian tubes tubes that conduct the egg to the uterus – takes about 3 days open end enlarged and fringed †“ increased surface area for catching egg cilia line oviducts to help move egg along fertilization – usually in upper third of oviduct ectopic pregnancy – usually a tubal pregnancy early embryo implants and begins development at site other than uterus usually in Fallopian tube (oviduct) dangerous to mother – must be terminated Uterus provides nourishment & protects the developing embryo and fetus A. Cervix – tubular portion the extends into vagina has opening through which sperm enter and baby exits B. Body – region in which fetus develops 1.Endometrium – lining site where embryo implants built up each month cell division makes it thicker becomes more vascular (more blood vessels) glands develop that provide nutritious material then lost as menstrual fluid (woman gets her period) 2. muscle allows uterus to expand as fetus grows 60X bigger at full term pregnancy 7 provides force to push baby out Possible problems with uterus: 1. Pelvic Infl ammatory Disease (PID): any bacterial infection of pelvic organs especially uterus, oviducts, ovaries; may spread (peritonitis) may be painful or chronic may have no symptoms often leaves oviduct scarred so that fertility is reduced and the risk of ectopic pregnancy is increased treated with antibiotics most commonly caused by sexually transmitted bacteria the bacteria that cause gonorrhea and chlamydia 2.Cervical cancer: involves external surface of cervix detect with PAP test risk factors -intercourse at an early age -multiple sex partners associated with certain STDsparticularly the HPV (human papilloma virus) that causes genital warts use of condoms and/or diaphragm decreases risk Vagina ~3 muscular passageway to uterus elastic – expands to allow baby through possible problem with vagina: vaginitis most commonly yeast (Candida albicans) not usually sexually transmitted not from poor hygiene bacteria in the vagina produce acid Anything that kills the bacteria or makes the vagina less acidic allows yeast to grow ? vaginitis Clitoris †¢ †¢ †¢ Derived from same embryological structure as the glans penis Becomes engorged with blood during sexual excitement No known function other than pleasure 8Menstrual or Uterine Cycle the endometrium (uterine lining) is built up to nourish the embryo and then it breaks down and is lost as menstrual flow it is a cycle caused by interplay of hormones want the uterus ready to receive embryo if there is one the ovarian cycle that produces the egg must be coordinated with the uterine cycle that prepares the uterus done by same hormones Hormones of the menstrual cycle OVARY Estrogen – from follicle cells in ovary and later from corpus luteum maturation of egg cell division in endometrium (uterine lining) cell division in breast tissue Progesterone – from corpus luteum further development of endometrium maintains endometrium ANTERIOR PITUITARY FSH – follicle stimulating hormone: stimulate s development of follicle LH – luteinizing hormone formation of corpus luteum from follicle cells remaining in ovary maintains corpus luteum Negative Feedback X? Y hormone X leads to an increase in hormone Y Y? X hormone Y causes decrease in hormone X when hormone X levels fall, less hormone Y produced less hormone Y means less inhibition of hormone X hormone X increases and stimulates release of hormone Y IN GENERAL FSH & LH stimulate release of estrogen and progesterone estrogen and progesterone inhibit release of FSH & LH BUT rapid rise in estrogen triggers LH release LH causes corpus luteum to form and secrete estrogen and progesterone corpus lutuem degenerates – estrogen and progesterone levels drop (removes inhibition of FSH) 9Negative feedback in menstrual cycle Low levels of estrogen and progesterone stimulate the release of FSH (and LH) from anterior pituitary FSH stimulates estrogen release by follicle cells in ovary Estrogen (and progesterone) inhibit FSH (a nd LH) release FSH and LH levels drop Estrogen and progesterone levels drop if the egg is fertilized corpus luteum is maintained by a hormone from the embryo called: human chorionic gonadotropic (HCG) hormone for about 5 months the corpus luteum secretes progesterone placenta eventually takes over progesterone secretion progesterone is needed to maintain endometrium if progesterone secretion stops – there is a miscarriage Menopause considered to have occurred when there is no period for 1 year follicles in ovary spontaneously degenerate eggs no longer produced ends child-bearing years estrogen & progesterone no longer produced in ovary occurs most often between 4555yrs. occurs gradually Perimenopause = time leading up to menopause Symptoms hot flashes & dizziness – dilation of arteries in top half of body may be: irritable headaches fatigue physical changes skin drier & less elastic ? wrinkles breasts decrease in size might be change in distribution of hair osteoporosi s – decrease in bone density NEED NOT CHANGE SEXUAL DESIRE 10Estrogen DESIRABLE EFFECTS Brain regulates areas that prepare for reproduction maintains stable body temperature may protect memory Breast Breast programs glands promotes breast to produce milk cancer Liver & Heart helps regulate cholesterol production prevents atherosclerosi s Uterus Uterus programs uterus to promotes nourish fetus cancer of cell division in endometrium endometrium NEGATIVE EFFECTS Estrogen’s Effect on Bone Bone maintains density causes calcium to be absorbed from gut promotes calcium deposit in bones Osteoporosis – decrease in bone density calcium salts make bone hard bones are constantly remodeled built up & broken down in response to stress (weight or pressure) until age 35 more build up than break down peak bone density influenced by: sex race size nutrition exercise that puts weight on bones overall health Bone Formation Blood level Of calcium Calcium in Bone 11Bone Breakdown Die t influences level of calcium in blood good sources of calcium: milk and milk products (choose low fat) dark green vegetables nuts seeds Weight-bearing exercise stimulates bone formation in the bones that are stressed by the exercise walking jogging calcium levels are regulated by hormones calcitonin from thyroid gland causes calcium to be put into bones parathyroid hormone from parathyroid glands causes calcium to be removed from bone estrogen helps absorption of calcium from digestive system stimulates bone formation After menopause estrogen levels greatly decrease Bone Formation Calcitonin Estrogen Blood level Of calcium Calcium in BoneThe Breast Function To produce milk to nourish the young Structure The breast is composed almost entirely of fatty tissue and milk glands milk glands are called lobules each gland drains into a system of ducts these empty into a collecting chamber below nipple several ducts collect into one duct ducts drain through nipple Possible Problems 1. Preme nstrual tenderness breast tissue is prepared each month along with egg and endometrium Estrogen causes cell division in breast tissue Progesterone causes increase in glandular activity Increase in blood supply to breast swelling and tenderness Parathyroid Hormone Bone Breakdown Bone Formation 12 2. fibrocystic breast disease (disorder) an exaggeration of monthly changes in breast tissue built up tissue is not completely reabsorbed and forms cysts feels like many lumps in breast 3. fibroadenoma – noncancerous lump in breast usually in upper & outer quadrant small moveable lump 4. reast cancer will return to this after discussion of cancer 13 Cancer = uncontrolled cell division Cancer cells kill by: depriving other cells of nutrients preventing other cells from performing their duties blocking important pathways (air, blood, nerve) Cells divide Tumor Benign tumor: stays in one place; not cancer Malignant tumor: cancer, cells spread (metastasize) multiple tumors form in other pa rts of body usually spread via blood vessels or lymphatic system In healthy person cell division is regulated Cell Cycle = the orderly sequence of events in the life of a dividing cell G1 – cell growth (G1 checkpoint – is the cell large enough to divide? S (synthesis) – genetic material (DNA of chromosomes) is duplicated G2 – growth and final preparations for cell division (G2 checkpoint – is the DNA replicated? ) Cell division Mitosis – nucleus divides Cytoplasm divides produces two daughter cells Normal controls on cell growth regulate cell division to allow growth and replacement 14 Cancer cells escape controls Normal controls: 1. Genes regulate the cell cycle GENE carries the instructions for making a protein PROTEIN has a job in the cell it might form (part of) a structure it might be regulatory = determine whether a certain cellular process will occur mutation = change in the gene’s information changes the instructions for the p rotein the new protein might not function or might function differently Normal Controls on Cell Division 1.Genes regulate the cell cycle proto-oncogene – normal form of a gene that produces specific proteins that stimulate the cell cycle for growth and repair acts like accelerator about 60 known if other controls were faulty it would enhance the growth of a tumor tumor-suppressor gene – normal form of a gene that produces specific proteins that slow the cell cycle proteins stop cell cycle at one of the checkpoints acts like brakes Normal Genetic Controls on Cell Division tumorprotosuppressor oncogene gene slows stimulates cell division mutations in these cell cycle genes can cause the cell to lose control over cell division Cancer oncogene = mutant protooncogene over stimulates cell division = stuck accelerator can help induce cancer dominant mutation – only need 1 of the 2 copies to be mutant mutant tumor-suppressor gene impairs ability to slow cell cycle = bro ken brakes enhances tumor formation recessive mutation – need mutation in both copies of the gene to have an effect 15 p53 a tumor-suppressor gene detects damaged DNA 2. rogrammed cell death occurs when genes are damaged cancer cells have mutation in other genes that prevent the damaged cells from being destroyed 3. limited life span cell can only divide 50-60 times telomeres – protective pieces on tips of chromosomes end of telomeres shaved off with each cell division telomerase = enzyme that makes telomeres not present in normal cells is present in most cancer cells 4. Need for blood supply controls prevent new blood supply to tissue unless it is damaged cancer cells produce growth factors to attract new blood vessels blood vessels needed to bring nutrients and remove waste also provides route for cancer cells to spread tops cell division initiates DNA repair if too much DNA damage —> p53 triggers programmed cell death Development of cancer need several mutati ons in same cell before cancer starts leukemia – may be as few as 3 mutations colon cancer – may need as many as 9 mutations EXAMPLE ONLY: Development of colon cancer 1. Loss of tumor-suppressor gene from chromosome 5 a polyp forms on colon wall a benign, precancerous tumor grows 2. Activation of oncogene from chromosome 12 a class II adenoma (benign) forms) 3. Loss of tumor-suppressor gene from chromosome 18 a class III adenoma (benign) grows 4. loss of tumor-suppressor gene from chromosome 17 a carcinoma (malignant tumor) forms 5. other changes ? cancer spreads to other tissues 16 5.Need for cell attachment normal cells must be anchored in place oncogenes produce proteins that break anchors but signal cell that it is anchored Immune System – The body’s defense system cells of the immune system roam the body looking for cells they don’t recognize as belonging cancer cells have changed and are not recognized as belonging if cells of the immune syst em encounter a cancer cell, they will be destroy it Factors that can cause cancer 1. carcinogens = chemicals that cause cancer cause mutations that lead to cancer many mutate p53 stimulate cell division (e. g. estrogen) inhibiting the immune system may be in environment, in food or drink, or inhaled at least 50 carcinogens some carcinogens are only carcinogenic after modification in the body 2. iruses consist of genetic information (usually DNA) inside a protein coat virus enters cell and uses host cell machinery to make new viruses viral DNA is inserted into host cell chromosome and is replicated with host cell DNA viral DNA is then a permanent part of host cell chromosome – it has transformed the cell into a cancer cell – all daughter cells will have the viral genes viruses have oncogenes that produce proteins that stimulate cell division viral protein produced may be hyperactive in stimulating cell division OR viral gene may direct human gene to produce too much of a protein that stimulates cell division result is a host cell that has been permanently changed by virus so that it contains an oncogene that stimulates cell division 3. radiation interacts with DNA and causes mutation ultraviolet (uv) radiation from sun causes skin cancer ionizing radiation natural sources (cosmic rays, radioactive materials in earth’s crust) medical sources (x-ray exams) 17 Risk Factors 1. revious breast or other form of cancer Breast Cancer most breast lumps are benign (not cancerous) fibrocystic breasts fibroadenoma death rate from breast cancer has been declining due to early detection practice monthly self exam breast cancer usually begins in the ducts (80%) or the glands begins as lump or tumor lump is usually in upper outer quadrant staged by size of lump and how far it has spread it can metastasize: break out of this site and spread to fatty tissue or other parts of body through lymphatic system or blood supply to determine whether cancer has spread they would look at sentinel nodes (first lymph nodes to which a tumor drains) 2. Gender females much more likely (men can get breast cancer) 3. Age chance of breast cancer goes up with age rises sharply after 40 4.Family history risk is 2X if: first-degree relative (mother, sister, daughter) with breast cancer risk is 5X if: 2 first-degree relatives with breast cancer may have inherited genes e. g. BRCA 1 or BRCA 2 these greatly increase chance of breast cancer BRCA 1 = a tumorsuppressor gene turns off another gene that blocks cell cycle 18 5. Hormone history prolonged, uninterrupted exposure to estrogen increases risk estrogen stimulates cell division in breast if too much estrogen some believe it can lead to cancer some types of breast tumors are stimulated to grow by estrogen more menstrual cycles = more exposure to estrogen risk increased by: a. early puberty – before 11 b. late menopause – after 55 c. not having children or delaying first pregnancy – after 30 What about other sources of estrogen? irth control pills – probably not hormone replacement after menopause – slight environmental sources – unknown certain pollutants mimic estrogen (pesticides, ingredients in plastics) electromagnetic fields can boost body’s production of estrogen 6. Obesity fat cells produce a substance that is converted to estrogen 7. Alcohol alcohol increases level of estrogen interferes with use of folate, which protects against tumor growth 19 Birth Control Effectiveness rate = # of couples out of every 100 using that means of contraception for 1 year who do NOT become pregnant Failure Rate = # of couples out of every 100 using that means of contraception for 1 year who DO become pregnant Typical Use = average person, use may be improper or inconsistent Vs.Perfect Use = proper and consistent use Effectiveness in Preventing STDs STDs spread by contact (direct contact is usually needed) Infected surface surface Uninfected Effectiv eness in Preventing Pregnancy Highly Effective 1. Sterilization (tubal ligation or vasectomy) prevent sperm from reaching egg 2. Hormonal Contraception A. Estrogen and progesterone – prevents egg development and ovulation 1. oral – the pill 2. vaginal ring – NuvaRing – woman inserts the ring so that it encircles the cervix worn 3 weeks, removed for the 4th 3. skin patch – OrthoEvra new patch once a week for 3 weeks 4th week no patch B. Progesterone-only contraception interferes with fertilization and implantation Types a. ral – mini pill (not used much in US) b. implants c. injections C. Emergency contraception – ? morning after pills? 1. Preven – estrogen and progesterone 2. Plan B – progesteroneonly first dose within 120 hours (5 days), second dose 12 hours later Decrease spread of STDs Certain means of contraception also prevent contact between body surfaces Condom – male or female Diaphragm or cervical cap (so me protection to woman) Increase spread of STDs Pill may increase woman’s risk of certain STDs Spermicides increase a woman’s risk of getting an STD from an infected partner; damages vaginal lining 20 3. IUD – interferes with fertilization and/or implantation; dislodges embryo 4.Diaphragm, cervical cap, FemCap, or Lea’s shield with spermicide – covers cervix and prevents sperm from reaching egg 5. Condom – prevents sperm from reaching egg 6. Vaginal sponge Moderately Effective 1. Spermicides – kill sperm Foams are best is used as only means of contraception May increase the risk of STD spread, particularly in women 2. Rhythm Method – abstinence on all days that could result in sperm meeting an egg Unreliable 1. Withdrawal (coitus interruptus) Does not work 1. Douching after intercourse 2. Intercourse standing up or in some other position 3. Intercourse during menstruation (during your period) 4. Intercourse while breastfeeding Reliable methods 1.Sterilization — permanent birth control Tubal ligation or vasectomy prevent the sperm from meeting the egg Should NOT be used if you or your partner may change your mind For male = vasectomy Close off vas deferens so sperm can’t leave the male’s body Sperm reabsorbed Still ejaculate Simple operation No effect on masculinity No effect on sex life or sex drive Risks: minimal Less than 1% of time tubes grow back together Occasionally a little bleeding in scrotum For women = tubal ligation = have tubes tied Close off oviducts (fallopian tubes) More difficult procedure than a vasectomy because must enter the abdominal cavity Does not cause menopause Will still menstruate No effect on sex drive 21 2. Hormonal Contraception A. Estrogen and progesterone – prevents egg development and ovulation 1. oral – the pill 2. aginal ring – NuvaRing – woman inserts the ring so that it encircles the cervix; worn 3 weeks, removed for the 4th 3. skin patch – OrthoEvra new patch once a week for 3 weeks; 4th week no patch expect same risks as pill, but know most about birth control pill Contain estrogen and progesterone Estrogen & progesterone inhibit FSH and LH Without FSH the egg doesn’t develop Without LH ovulation cannot occur Almost 100% effective – if used properly If you miss more than one day, use another form of birth control Side Effects Headaches Breast tenderness Weight gain Vaginal Infections are more common Serious Risks caused primarily by estrogen Circulatory System Problems rare but can be fatal A.Problems: (1) High blood pressure (2) Increased tendency to form blood clots (1) High blood pressure Increases with time on pill Increases with woman’s age STOP SMOKING – cigarette smoking also causes high blood pressure Blood pressure = pressure exerted by blood on vessel walls Created by beating of heart Pressure must be great enough to move blood around the body If too g reat = high blood pressure Problems caused by high blood pressure 1. strains the heart and blood vessels 2. can lead to an aneurysm (weak spot in artery wall balloons out; can rupture; bleed to death internally 3. promotes atherosclerosis (fatty deposits in arteries) and arteriosclerosis (hardening of arteries) 4. amages kidneys; can lead to kidney failure 22 (2) Increased tendency to form blood clots Danger is that a blood clot can break free and lodge in a small blood vessel, blocking blood flow B. Consequences: (1) Increased risk of heart attack and stroke Heart attack = death of heart cells Stroke = death of nerve cells in brain Heart attack & stroke occur when blood flow to heart or brain is interrupted by: Burst vessel Fatty deposits (atherosclerosis) Blood clot (2) increased risk of pulmonary embolism 2. Increased risk of urinary tract infections 3. Increased susceptibility to sexually transmitted diseases A. Change in pH of vagina – increased risk of chlamydia and gon orrhea B.Change in cervical structure exposes vulnerable cells C. HPV (human papilloma virus that causes genital warts) infection is more likely to result in cervical cancer Progesterone seems to activate HPV in cervical cells grown is culture Non-contraceptive benefits of the pill Decreased risk of PID (pelvic inflammatory disease) Decreased risk of ovarian and endometrial cancer Decreased risk of ectopic pregnancy Decreased risk of iron deficiency anemia 1. 2. 3. 4. 2. Hormonal contraception (cont. ) B. Progesterone-only contraception interferes with fertilization and implantation Types a. oral – mini pill (not used much in US) b. implants –hormone containing rods implanted in upper arm c. njections – DepoProvera injection every 3 months 99% effective in preventing pregnancy no protection against STDs 23 Mechanism of action of progesterone only a. Thickens cervical mucus b. Interferes with movement of sperm c. makes implantation more difficult because endometr ium thin d. Sometimes blocks ovulation e. Makes the corpus luteum degenerate too quickly (removes the source of progesterone that maintains the endometrium) Side effects a. Menstrual cycle disturbance Periods irregular More days of light bleeding Missed periods b. Weight gain c. breast tenderness d. bone density decreases 2. Hormonal contraception (cont. ) C. Emergency contraception – â€Å"morning after pills† 1. Preven – estrogen and progesterone 2.Plan B – progesteroneonly first dose within 72 hours, second dose 12 hours later Emergency contraception is thought to work by inhibiting or delaying ovulation preventing fertilization altering the endometrium, making it an inhospitable place for implantation of the young embryo used after an act of unprotected intercourse if pregnancy not desired risk of pregnancy varies from 0 – 26 after a single act of intercourse – depending on day of cycle morning after pill decreases the risk of pregnancy by 75% (e. g. from 26% to 6. 5%) does not affect the embryo is it has already implanted Side effects: 1. nausea in 50-70% of women 22% vomit 2. menstrual cycle disturbance next period 2 – 3 days early or late 3.IUD (intrauterine device) – interferes with fertilization and/or implantation; dislodges embryo Small device placed inside the uterus by physician remains effective for 1, 3 or 7 years, depending on the type 24 Effectiveness 97% with progesterone 99% with copper Mechanism of action of IUD– affects: Sperm – immobilizes sperm; interferes with their movement Ovum – speeds up movement to uterus Fertilization inhibited Endometrium – not properly developed for implantation FemCap – 3 sizes, latex free, removal strap Prevents the sperm from reaching the egg Must use with spermicidal cream or jelly Helps seal gaps Holds it in place Added chemical protection Must be fitted by a health care professional so seal is tight refit if weight c hanges by more than 10 lbs. Effectiveness 97-98% perfect use 81% typical use It is ? at the time? rotection In place not more than 2 – 3 hr before intercourse Left in place at least 6 – 8 hrs. after intercourse Offers the woman some protection against STDs Risks with diaphragm – minimal 1. slight increase frequency of bladder infection 2. possible allergic reaction 3. toxic shock syndrome don’t leave in place more than 24 hours or use when you have your period 1. 2. 3. 4. Disadvantages 1. if never had children, insertion is painful 2. may have heavier menstrual flow & more cramps 3. body may reject it – then not protected against pregnancy Risks 1. pelvic inflammatory disease – primarily following insertion of the device can lead to sterility and increased risk of ectopic pregnancy 2. increased risk of ectopic pregnancy 4.Diaphragm or cervical cap with spermicide – covers cervix and prevents sperm from reaching egg Soft rubber cup on flexible ring that fits over the cervix Lea’s shield one-size fits all reusable device 25 5. Condom – prevents sperm from reaching egg A. Male condom Thin strong latex sheath that covers the penis and prevents sperm from reaching the egg Disadvantages: Must be placed on an erect penis – before contact with vagina Decreased sensation Failures usually due to tearing if pulled on too tightly – leave at tip if too little lubrication Penis should be withdrawn from vagina while still erect B. female condom Pouch of polyurethane with a flexible ring at each end Effectiveness in preventing pregnancy — 74% typical use Effectiveness against STDs Little known Does provide a barrier Male condom still better 6.Vaginal sponge use: put in place before intercourse (moisten first) leave in place for at least 6 hours after intercourse effective for 24 hours works by: 1. creating a barrier to sperm 2. trapping sperm in sponge 3. spermicide to kill sperm effectivenes s: about 83% less if you have had children Moderately Effective 1. Spermicides – kill sperm Foams are best is used as only means of contraception Effectiveness in preventing pregnancy – about 80% for 60 min. Increases a woman’s risk of getting an STD from an infected partner; damages vaginal lining 26 2. Rhythm Method – abstinence on all days that could result in sperm meeting an egg Egg Can be fertilized for about24 hr. after ovulation Ovulation ccurs 14+/days before the onset of flow Sperm Can live for at least 2 days within woman’s body Problem is predicting ovulation 2 days before it occurs Effectiveness about 75% Fertile period Subtract 14 days from cycle length Add 2 days on either side for uncertainty in time of ovulation Earliest fertile day = 2 days before earliest expected day of ovulation Latest fertile day = 1 day after the latest expected day of ovulation Works best if you avoid all days until at least 1 day after you know ovulation ha s occurred Ways of detecting ovulation 1. Body temperature Requires a special thermometer Must be done first thing in the morning When body temperature increases slightly and stays up ovulation has probably occurred 2. cervical mucus cervical secretion is more slippery and thinner at ovulation Unreliable 1. Withdrawal before ejaculation (coitus interruptus) Methods that DON’T work 1. Douching after intercourse 2. Intercourse standing up or in some other position 3. Intercourse during menstruation (during your period) 4. Intercourse while breastfeeding 27Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) and Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI) Extremely Common 2/3 of cases in people under age 25 More likely to affect women Women exposed greater surface area of mucous membrane during sexual contact Women less likely to know they are infected Infected area not easily seen Urethra less likely to be infected So less like to be pain Therefore, women more like to have serious consequences. Spread by contact (direct contact is usually needed) Infected ? Uninfected surface surface Mucous membranes are most vulnerable linings of: Urethra Vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes Vulva (external genitalia of woman) Mouth and throat Rectum Eyes Many STDs can enter through break in skinBacteria A bacterium is a single cell A bacterium can divide very rapidly producing two daughter cells results in very rapid (exponantial) growth of the population *Bacteria produce harmful chemicals = toxins (poisons) of enzymes these toxins kills or damage body cells the damage to body cells causes the symptoms of the disease Bacteria ? Toxin or Enzyme ? Damages / Kills Body Cells Bacteria divide rapidly ? More Cells? More Toxin (or enzyme) ? More damage to body. * Sometimes the damage or symptom is caused by the body's defense mechanisms against the disease. Bacteria = cells with a slightly different structure than the cells found in your body Bacteria have a cell structures (called ribosomes) that have a sliightly different structure than human version Structural differences are important because they allow antibiotics to bactieria without killing host (your) cells. 28Antibiotics kill bacteria by: preventing bacteria from making cell walls OR preventing bacteria from making complete proteins OR damaging the plasma membrane Bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics by: inactivating the antibiotic pumping the antibiotic out of cell devoloping the ability to function in spite of antibiotics Antibiotic – resistant bacteria are a major health threat Antibiotic Resistance Some bacteria are now resistant to every known antibiotic Bacteria get their resistance from genes that: Inactivate the antibiotic Pump the antibiotic out of the cell Allow them to function in spite of antibiotic How do bacteria get these resistance genes? 1. They can get their own genes through mutation and selection a. mutation rate is high because rate of cell division is high hen antibiotics are used that a re not strong enough or are not used long enough, the most resistant survive each time antibiotic taken improperly, the more resistant bacteria survive resistance builds b. the â€Å"good bacteria? are killed by the antibiotic† the resistant bacteria can reproduce faster than normal, healthful bacteria and cause illness 2. Bacteria can get resistance genes from other bacteria through plasmids that carry genes for resistance Plasmids – a small circular piece of DNA (genetic materal) that contains a few genes not necessary for bacteria to live, but bacteria with them often have an advantage can be inserted into bacterial chromosome and come out as circular piece again Plasmids can be copied and a copy gived to another bacterium through sex then both bacteria have the genes on the plasmid. 29Certain plasmids (called R factors) have genes for resistance to antibiotics possible to have genes for 1 or 10 different antibiotics genes for resistance for one antibiotic can be ad ded to a plasmid than has genes for resistance to other antibiotics leads to the development of bacteria that are resistance to many different antibiotics multi-drug resistance tends to happen in places where antibiotic use is heavy hospitals farm animals Resistance develops where antibiotics used most Hospitals Livestock Overuse and Misuse of antibiotics has led to resistance 1. Misuse for medical purposes Don't demand antibiotics for viral diseases – they don't work on viruses Take the full course of your prescription 2.Widespead use in livestock and agriculture Used in livestock to promote growth Resistance genes can spread from the animals to the bacteria that harm humans Cook meat throroughly (be sure meat juices don't come in contact with other food) Wash fruits and vegetables Avoid raw eggs Chlamydia and Gonorrhea Caused by different bacteria but have similar symptoms Both primarily affect mucous membranes Most noticeable symptom – if it occurs – is pain during urination This occurs if urethra is infected Urethra is more likely to infected in a male Therefore males more likely to have symptoms Often they don't cause symptoms Can still spread the cactiria to others Bacteria still damage reproductive structures 30Chlamydia (Chlamydia trachomatis) Most common bacterial STD in US Highly contagious Symptoms – slow to appear, 3 weeks to months Men More likely to have symptoms than women Painful urination Discharge from urethra Women If urethra is infected Painful urination Discharge from urethra PID (chlamydia causes 50-90% of PID) Slight vaginal discharge Pain during intercourse Abdominal pain & fever Chlamydia is the STD the most likely to cause scar tissue to form in the tubes that gametes move through Because of scar tissue: Chlamydia is the STD most likely to cause sterility Chlamydia is the STD most likely to increase the risk of an ectopic pregnancy The bacteria that cause chlamydia Must live within a cell because they canno t generate their own ATP They use the ATP that the host cell produces Energy in food ATP Energy for cell activities Effects on Fetus in Utero can cause membranes to rupture can cause death of fetus contracted during birth blindness pneumonia infection of mouth, throat, rectum Diagnosis Urine test for DNA for Chalmydia Swab cervix (women) or urethra (males) and culture cells Pap test (women) Treatment: Antibiotics Gonorrhea Caused by diplococcus bacterium Neisseria gonorrheae Symptoms Often none Men More likely to have symptoms than women Painful urination Discharge from urethra 31Women If urethra is infected Painful urination Discharge from urethra PID Slight vaginal discharge Pain during intercourse Abdominal pain & fever Acidity decreases if on pill or at menopause Effect on fetus: Contracted during birth May cause blindness Diagnosis: Urine test form DNA Swab cervix (women) or urethra (males) and culture cells Look for bacteria in cells Treatment: Antibiotics New varieties are re sistant to antibiotics Syphilis Cause = bacterium (Treponema pallidum) Requires a warm, moist environment Can invade any mucous membrane Usually in the genital area Three Stages 1. Primary Stage 2-6 weeks after contact chancre forms may be small swelling or deep lesion usually hard raised edges â€Å"crater-like† painless at site of contact heals by itself in 4-6 weeks diagnosis at this pint is by isolation of the bacterium from chancre 2.Secondary Stage 2-10 weeks after chancre appears Symptoms Rash- doesn't itch, ulcerates Ulcers in mucous membranes In mouth, vulva, vagina, rectum Warly growths around anus and genital organs Headache Body ache May have: Sore throat Gastrointestinal upset Loss of hair Diagnosis at this stage: Blood test that looks for antibodies (VDRL) 32 3. Tertiary Stage 8-25 years after initial contact almost any organ can be infected and develop lesions called a gumma most common sites of gummas: 1. large arteries decrease diameter of artery aneurysm â⠂¬â€œ weak spot in artery that balloons out 2. brain & spinal cord Blindness Deafness Paralysis Mental degeneration 3.Skeleton Effect of fetus Transferred across placenta Can cause deformities Can be fatal Treatment: Early stages curables with antibiotics Virus Viruses have genetic material (usually DNA but some have RNA) and a protein coat (capsid) Structure of a typical virus Steps in Viral Life Cycle 1. Attachement – Viral protein binds to receptor on host cell 2. Penetration – virus enters host cell 3. Biosynthesis – viral genetic material replicated by using host cell ? machinery;? new coat proteins made 4. Assembly – newly synthesized viral compnents put together to form new viruses 5. Release [called viral shedding or budding]; viruses leave cell with envelopes from host cell OR Viruses genetic information can be integrated into host cell chromosome and stay there in dormant form until it is reactivated Viruses can cause call damage as they are rel eased (shed) 1.Rapid release – cell can rupture and die 2. slow release – cell damage and dearth occurs over long time period 3. Periodic release – viruses can remain in certain body cells (e. g. nerve cells) for life; they may be release from body cells periodically and enter new target cells. (herpes can remain in nerve cells; be released epriodically and enter new epithelial cells; damages the epithelial cells) 4. be integrated into host chromosome and stay there in dormant form until it is reactivated 33 Lytic Infection Persistent Infection Latent Infection Transformation to cancerous cell Rapid release of new viruses from infecded cell caused cell death.The symptoms of the disease depend on which cells are killed Slow release of new viruses causes cell to remain alive and continue to produce new viruses for a prolonged period of time. Delay between infection and symptoms. Virus is present in the cell without harming the cell. Symptoms beging when the virus begins actively replication and causes cell death when new viruses exit the cell. Certain viruses insert their genetic information into host cell chromosomes. Some carry oncogenes (cancer – causing genes) that are active in the host cell. Some disrupt the functioning of the host cell's genes that regulate cell division, causing the cell to become cancerous. Viruses and Disease 1.Can cause cell damage as they leave the host cell; the cell damage causes the symptoms 2. Can cause cancer when they insert themselves into host chromosome or by producing factors that affect the host genes that regulate cell division Genital Herpes Cause virus Herpes simplex -type 1 (HSV-1) – usually associated with fever blisters + cold sores -type 2 (HSV-2) – usually causes similar sores in genital area Symptoms (if there are symptoms) first may have a tingling or itching sensation (called the prodrome) 2-20 days after contact blisters of fluid filled sores 1st attack lasts about 3 wk s (1wk-4wks) can use ointments to relieve the pain will go away whether treated or not Also cause cancer hen they insert themselves into host chromosome o r by producing factors that affect the host genes that regulate cell division Viruses and Disease 34 Genital Warts in about half (50%) of people with herpes: blisters reform periodically usually at times of stress because the virus moves the the sacral ganglia of the spinal cord not affected by the human immune system here can be reawakened + cause new sores -maybe 2x month or 1x in 10yrs -NO CURE Genital Herpes spread by contact of infected and uinfected surface no sex while blister present or during prodrome or for at least 10 days after blisters are gone use a condom at all timeseven when no blisters are present erpes can be spread to newborn if deliver vaginally while virus is present if infant's infection is in liver and central nervous system-can be fatal Diagnosis Examination of sores Culture fluid from sores Blood test for antibodies in women-Pap test Treatment -Syptoms only Acyclovir (Zovirax):-reduce severity of first outbreak and reduce frequency of recurrences Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) usually transmitted by sexual contact 50-70% of those who have sex with an infected person will get them more likely if on the pill or pregnant or uncircumsized appear 1-2 months after contact, maybe longer appearance of growth on dry areas- brownish on moist areas-pink they grow may cause foul-smelling discharge may itch -warts can be removed by: 1. freezing 2. burning 3. laser 4. treated with a chemical (podophyllin) that is painted onleft 4 hrs. washed away warts fall off * virus may remain Diagnosis appearance of wart in women-Pap test can look for DNA of HPV inside cells 35 Genital Warts *ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED RISK OF CERVICAL CANCER -HPV found in 90% of women with cervical cancer There is now a vaccine against HPV and, therefore, against cervical cancer *ASSOCIATED WITH AND INCREASED RISK OF CANCER OF P ENIS 36 BODY DEFENSES Innate Responses – Nonspecific Physical and Chemical Barriers Adaptive defense: Specific defenses (directed at specific target): The immune system: 1. Specific for particular â€Å"invader† (antigen) 2. Has memory for specific antigens previously encountered Lymphocyte encounters antigen Immune responses have 1.Specificity: Specific for particular â€Å"invader† (antigen) Antigen = a large molecule (not recognized as belonging in the body) that triggers an immune response Ex: antigen can be on the surface of a bacterium or virus etc. ; can be a bacterial toxin Your body cells have markers (molecules) that label them as belonging in your body Each lymphocyte has receptors on its surface that recognize a specific antigen When that antigen is present, it causes that lymphocyte to divide many times Effector cells Memory cells Effector cells attack specific target Memory cells remain and provide a quick response in subsequent exposure to same an tigen Third line of defense: Specific defenses (directed at specific target): The immune system: Immune system is 1. specific for a particular ? invader? antigen) 2. has memory for specific antigen previously encountered Creates an army of lymphocytes specialized to attack that antigen These are called Effector cells 2. Memory: have memory for specific antigen previously encountered Memory lymphocytes remain to cause a quick response the next time the same antigen is encountered 37 STEPS IN IMMUNE RESPONSE 1. Threat: foreign cell or molecule enters body 2. Detection Macrophage: detects invader engulfs invader digests invader 3. Alert: Macrophage places a piece of consumed antigen on its plasma membrane attached to a self marker presents the antigen to a helper T cell activates the helper T cell 4.Alarm: Helper T Cell: after activation by a macrophage, it divides, forming effector helper T cells and memory helper T cells turns â€Å"on† both lines of immune response to fight t hat specific antigen by activating B cells and T cells 5. Build specific defense (clonal selection) Lymphocyte encounters antigen Effector cells attack specific target Memory cells remain and provide a quick response in subsequent exposure to same antigen 6. Defense A. Antibody-mediated immune response Effector B cell = Plasma cell Plasma cells secrete antibodies Targets = antigens outside of cell or on surface of cell B. Cell-mediated immune response Effector T cell = cytotoxic T cell Cytotoxic T cells kill foreign cells by causing them to burst Targets = cells bearing antigens (any cells recognized as foreign: e. g. nfected cell, bacteria, cancer cell) 7. Continued surveillance memory cells remain 8. Withdrawal of forces After antigen has been destroyed suppressor T cells shut down the immune response Effector cells cells Memory 38 A. Antibody-mediated immune response Effector B cell = Plasma cell Plasma cells secrete antibodies Targets = antigens outside of cell or on surface of cell An antibody is a Y-shaped protein designed to recognize a specific antigen Antibodies help defend against a specific antigen Can only work against antigens that are free in blood Antibodies bind to the antigen Antibodies are secreted by plasma cells (effector B cells) Ways that Antibodies can Work 1.Neutralization – bind to antigen prevent virus from being able to enter host cell inactivate toxin 2. Agglutination and precipitation -clumps â€Å"invaders† together makes it easier for other cells to engulf them 3. Activation of complement system complement (system) is a group of proteins that pokes holes causes â€Å"invader† to burst B. Cell-mediated immune response Effector T cell = cytotoxic T cell Cytotoxic T cells kill foreign cells by causing them to burst Targets = cells bearing antigens (any cells recognized as foreign: e. g. infected cell, bacteria, cancer cell) Cytotoxic T cells secrete proteins called perforins that poke holes in â€Å"invaderâ₠¬  or foreign cells, causing them to burst 39Cells Involved In the Immune System Macrophage: an antigen presenting cells engulfs and digests antigens places a piece of consumed antigen on its plasma membrane presents the antigen to a helper T cell activates the helper T cell B Cells: T Cells: Helper T Cell: the â€Å"on† switch for both lines of immune response after activation by a macrophage, it divides, forming effector helper T cells and memory helper T cells activate B cells and T cells Cytotoxic T cell: (effector T cell) responsible for cellmediated immune responses when activated by helper T cell, it divides to form effector cytotoxic T cells and memory cytotoxic T cells destroys cellular targets, such as virusinfected body cells, bacteria, fungi, arasites, and cancer cells Suppressor T cell: the â€Å"off† switch for immune responses suppresses the activity of B cells and T cells after the foreign cell or molecule has been successfully destroyed involved in an tibodymediated responses when activated by helper T cells, it divides to form plasma cells and memory cells Plasma Cell: effector in antibodymediated response secretes antibodies specific to the invader Memory Cells: responsible for memory of immune system generated by B cells or any type of T cell during an immune response enable quick and efficient response on subsequent exposures of the antigen may live for years 40 AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Caused by HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus HIV infects T cells T cells become HIV factories Organism enters body Macrophage detects it HIV kills helper T cells so THIS doesn’t happen Activates a helper T cell Stimulates division of cytotoxic T cells (attack foreign cells) As helper T cell numbers drop, the body becomes increasingly susceptible to infection Stimulates B cells to form antibodies (destroys the infectious organism) 41